READING PASSAGE 1
You should spend about đôi mươi minutes on Questions 1-13 which are based on Reading Passage 1 below.
The risks agriculture faces in developing countries
Synthesis of an online debate*
A
Two things distinguish food production from all other productive activities: first, every single person needs food each day and has a right to lớn it; and second, it is hugely dependent on nature. These two unique aspects, one political, the other natural, make food production highly vulnerable and different from any other business. At the same time, cultural values are highly entrenched in food and agricultural systems worldwide.
B
Farmers everywhere face major risks, including extreme weather, long-term climate change, and price volatility in input and product markets. However, smallholder farmers in developing countries must in addition giảm giá khuyến mãi with adverse environments, both natural, in terms of soil quality, rainfall, etc., and human, in terms of infrastructure, financial systems, markets, knowledge and technology. Counter-intuitively, hunger is prevalent among many smallholder farmers in the developing world.
C
Participants in the online debate argued that our biggest challenge is to lớn address the underlying causes of the agricultural system’s inability to lớn ensure sufficient food for all, and they identified as drivers of this problem our dependency on fossil fuels and unsupportive government policies.
D
On the question of mitigating the risks farmers face, most essayists called for greater state intervention. In his essay, Kanayo F. Nwanze, President of the International Fund for Agricultural Development, argued that governments can significantly reduce risks for farmers by providing basic services lượt thích roads to lớn get produce more efficiently to lớn markets, or water and food storage facilities to lớn reduce losses. Sophia Murphy, senior advisor to lớn the Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, suggested that the procurement and holding of stocks by governments can also help mitigate wild swings in food prices by alleviating uncertainties about market supply.
E
Shenggen Fan, Director General of the International Food Policy Research Institute, help up social safety nets and public welfare programmes in Ethiopia, Brazil and Mexico as valuable ways to lớn address poverty among farming families and reduce their vulnerability to lớn agriculture shocks. However, some commentators responded that cash transfers to lớn poor families vì thế not necessarily translate into increased food security, as these programmes vì thế not always strengthen food production or raise incomes. Regarding state subsidies for agriculture, Rokeya Kabir, Executive Director of Bangladesh Nari Progati Sangha, commented in her essay that these ‘have not compensated for the stranglehold exercised by private traders. In fact, studies show that sixty percent of beneficiaries of subsidies are not poor, but rich landowners and non-farmer traders.’
F
Nwanze, Murphy and Fan argued that private risk management tools, lượt thích private insurance, commodity futures markets, and rural finance can help small-scale producers mitigate risk and allow for investment in improvements. Kabir warned that financial tư vấn schemes often encourage the adoption of high-input agricultural practices, which in the medium term may raise production costs beyond the value of their harvests. Murphy noted that when futures markets become excessively financialised they can contribute to lớn short-term price volatility, which increases farmers’ food insecurity. Many participants and commentators emphasised that greater transparency in markets is needed to lớn mitigate the impact of volatility, and make evident whether adequate stocks and supplies are available. Others contended that agribusiness companies should be held responsible for paying for negative side effects.
G
Many essayists mentioned climate change and its consequences for small-scale agriculture. Fan explained that ‘in addition to lớn reducing crop yields, climate change increases the magnitude and frequency of extreme weather events, which increase smallholder vulnerability.’ The growing unpredictability of weather patterns increases farmers’ difficulty in managing weather-related risks. According to lớn this author, one solution would be to lớn develop crop varieties that are more resilient to lớn new climate trends and extreme weather patterns. Accordingly, Pat Mooney, co-founder and executive director of the ETC Group, suggested that ‘if we are to lớn survive climate change, we must adopt policies that let peasants diversify the plant and animal species and varieties/breeds that trang điểm our menus.’
H
Some participating authors and commentators argued in favour of community-based and autonomous risk management strategies through collective action groups, co-operatives or producers’ groups. Such groups enhance market opportunities for small-scale producers, reduce marketing costs and synchronise buying and selling with seasonal price conditions. According to lớn Murphy, ‘collective action offers an important way for farmers to lớn strengthen their political and economic bargaining power, and to lớn reduce their business risks.’ One commentator, Giel Ton, warned that collective action does not come as a miễn phí good. It takes time, effort and money to lớn organise, build trust and to lớn experiment. Others, lượt thích Marcel Vernooij and Marcel Beukeboom, suggested that in order to lớn ‘apply what we already know’, all stakeholders, including business, government, scientists and civil society, must work together, starting at the beginning of the value chain.
I
Some participants explained that market price volatility is often worsened by the presence of intermediary purchasers who, taking advantage of farmers’ vulnerability, dictate prices. One commentator suggested farmers can gain greater control over prices and minimise price volatility by selling directly to lớn consumers. Similarly, Sonali Bisht, founder and advisor to lớn the Institute of Himalayan Environmental Research and Education (INHERE), India, wrote that community-supported agriculture, where consumers invest in local farmers by subscription and guarantee producers a fair price, is a risk-sharing model worth more attention. Direct food distribution systems not only encourage small-scale agriculture but also give consumers more control over the food they consume, she wrote.
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* The personal names in the text refer to lớn the authors of written contributions to lớn the online debate
Questions 1-3
Reading Passage 1 has nine paragraphs, A-I.
Which paragraph contains the following information?
Write the correct letter, A-I, in boxes 1-3 on your answer sheet.
1 a reference to lớn characteristics that only apply to lớn food production
2 a reference to lớn challenges faced only by farmers in certain parts of the world
3 a reference to lớn difficulties in bringing about co-operation between farmers
Questions 4-9
Look at the following statements (Question 4-9) and the list of people below.
Match each statement with the correct person, A-G.
Write the correct letter, A-G, in boxes 4-9 on your answer sheet.
NB You may use any letter more kêu ca once.
4 Financial assistance from the government does not always go to lớn the farmers who most need it.
5 Farmers can benefit from collaborating as a group.
6 Financial assistance from the government can improve the standard of living of farmers.
7 Farmers may be helped if there is financial input by the same individuals who buy from them.
8 Governments can help to lớn reduce variation in prices.
9 Improvements to lớn infrastructure can have a major impact on risk for farmers.
List of People
A Kanayo F. Nwanze
B Sophia Murphy
C Shenggen Fan
D Rokeya Kabir
E Pat Mooney
F Giel Ton
G Sonali Bisht
Questions 10-11
Choose TWO letters, A-E.
Write the correct letters in boxes 10 and 11 on your answer sheet.
Which TWO problems are mentioned which affect farmers with small farms in developing countries?
A lack of demand for locally produced food
B lack of irrigation programmes
C being unable to lớn get insurance
D the effects of changing weather patterns
E having to lớn sell their goods to lớn intermediary buyers
Questions 12-13
Choose TWO letters, A-E.
Write the correct letters in boxes 12 and 13 on your answer sheet.
Which TWO actions are recommended for improving conditions for farmers?
A reducing the size of food stocks
B attempting to lớn ensure that prices rise at certain times of the year
C organising co-operation between a wide range of interested parties
D encouraging consumers to lớn take a financial stake in farming
E making customers aware of the reasons for changing food prices
READING PASSAGE 2
You should spend about đôi mươi minutes on Questions 14-26 which are based on Reading Passage 2 below.
The Lost City
An explorer’s encounter with the ruined thành phố of Machu Picchu, the most famous icon of the Inca civilsation
A
When the US explorer and academic Hiram Bingham arrived in South America in 1911, he was ready for what was to lớn be the greatest achievement of his life: the exploration of the remote hinterland to lớn the west of Cusco, the old capital of the Inca empire in the Andes mountains of Peru. His goal was to lớn locate the remains of a thành phố called Vitcos, the last capital of the Inca civilisation. Cusco lies on a high plateau at an elevation of more kêu ca 3,000 metres, and Bingham’s plan was to lớn descend from this plateau along the valley of the Urubamba river, which takes a circuitous route down to lớn the Amazon and passes through an area of dramatic canyons and mountain ranges.
B
When Bingham and his team mix off down the Urubamba in late July, they had an advantage over travelers who had preceded them: a track had recently been blasted down the valley canyon to lớn enable rubber to lớn be brought up by mules from the jungle. Almost all previous travelers had left the river at Ollantaytambo and taken a high pass across the mountains to lớn rejoin the river lower down, thereby cutting a substantial corner, but also therefore never passing through the area around Machu Picchu.
C
On 24 July they were a few days into their descent of the valley. The day began slowly, with Bingham trying to lớn arrange sufficient mules for the next stage of the trek. His companions showed no interest in accompanying him up the nearby hill to lớn see some ruins that a local farmer, Melchor Arteaga, had told them about the night before. The morning was dull and damp, and Bingham also seems to lớn have been less kêu ca keen on the prospect of climbing the hill. In his book Lost City of the Incas, he relates that he made the ascent without having the least expectation that he would find anything at the top.
D
Bingham writes about the approach in vivid style in his book. First, as he climbs up the hill, he describes the ever-present possibility of deadly snakes, ‘capable of making considerable springs when in pursuit of their prey’; not that he sees any. Then there’s a sense of mounting discovery as he comes across great sweeps of terraces, then a mausoleum, followed by monumental staircases and, finally, the grand ceremonial buildings of Machu Picchu. ‘It seemed lượt thích an unbelievable dream … the sight held bủ spellbound …’ he wrote.
E
We should remember, however, that Lost City of the Incas is a work of hindsight, not written until 1948, many years after his journey. His journal entries of the time reveal a much more gradual appreciation of his achievement. He spent the afternoon at the ruins noting down the dimensions of some of the buildings, then descended and rejoined his companions, to lớn whom he seems to lớn have said little about his discovery. At this stage, Bingham didn’t realise the extent or the importance of the site, nor did he realise what use he could make of the discovery.
F
However, soon after returning it occurred to lớn him that he could make a name for himself from this discovery. When he came to lớn write the National Geographic magazine article that broke the story to lớn the world in April 1913, he knew he had to lớn produce a big idea. He wondered whether it could have been the birthplace of the very first Inca, Manco the Great, and whether it could also have been what chroniclers described as ‘the last thành phố of the Incas’. This term refers to lớn Vilcabamba, the settlement where the Incas had fled from Spanish invaders in the 1530s. Bingham made desperate attempts to lớn prove this belief for nearly 40 years. Sadly, his vision of the site as both the beginning and kết thúc of the Inca civilisation, while a magnificent one, is inaccurate. We now know that Vilcabamba actually lies 65 kilometres away in the depths of the jungle.
G
One question that has perplexed visitors, historians and archaeologists alike ever since Bingham, is why the site seems to lớn have been abandoned before the Spanish Conquest. There are no references to lớn it by any of the Spanish chroniclers – and if they had known of its existence ví close to lớn Cusco they would certainly have come in tìm kiếm of gold. An idea which has gained wide acceptance over the past few years is that Machu Picchu was a moya, a country estate built by an Inca emperor to lớn escape the cold winters of Cusco, where the elite could enjoy monumental architecture and spectacular views. Furthermore, the particular architecture of Machu Picchu suggests that it was constructed at the time of the greatest of all the Incas, the emperor Pachacuti (c. 1438-71). By custom, Pachacuti’s descendants built other similar estates for their own use, and ví Machu Picchu would have been abandoned after his death, some 50 years before the Spanish Conquest.
Questions 14-20
Reading Passage 2 has seven paragraphs, A-G.
Choose the correct heading for each paragraph from the list of headings below.
Write the correct number, i-viii, in boxes 14-20 on your answer sheet.
List of headings
i Different accounts of the same journey
ii Bingham gains support
iii A common belief
iv The aim of the trip
v A dramatic description
vi A new route
vii Bingham publishes his theory
viii Bingham’s lack of enthusiasm
14 Paragraph A
15 Paragraph B
16 Paragraph C
17 Paragraph D
18 Paragraph E
19 Paragraph F
20 Paragraph G
Questions 21-24
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 2?
In boxes 21-24 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
21 Bingham went to lớn South America in tìm kiếm of an Inca thành phố.
22 Bingham chose a particular route down the Urubamba valley because it was the most common route used by travellers.
23 Bingham understood the significance of Machu Picchu as soon as he saw it.
24 Bingham returned to lớn Machu Picchu in order to lớn find evidence to lớn tư vấn his theory.
Questions 25-26
Complete the sentences below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 25-26 on your answer sheet.
25 The track that took Bingham down the Urubamba valley had been created for the transportation of …………………………….
26 Bingham found out about the ruins of Machu Picchu from a …………………………….. it the Urubamba valley.